Compendium of theory of the communication
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4. The analysis of documents and meanings
4.1. The search of the meaning
The meant concept of has been studied in more ambles to you disciplinary.
The semantic true-conditional sentence has studied the logon between language and truth.
According to this approach, every enunciated truth value is equipped of a data.
The phrase is the image of a data be of things.
The truth conditions, of linguistica nature, refer to a data world where the enunciated one is true.
According to Frege, the sense is one property of the word.
It is guarantee of intersoggettività and mutual understanding.
It does not change from context to context.
It is an objective aspect of the language shared from speaking.
For Carnap the extension of enunciating is that to which the enunciated one it refers: the enunciated one supplies the conditions of truth based on which is true.
The intensity of one phrase serves instead determining of the extension in all the possible worlds.
The intensity coincides with the same meant one of the linguistica expression.
The problem of this vision is that it is of refererenzialista and antipsychological type.
Semantic logical-philosophical or the modellistica one excludes the lessico from just the within of study, taking care themselves only of the logical and formal plan of it means, and giving place to you to indifferenziazione problems.
Semantic the structural one of de Saussure wants to give one exclusively linguistica definition of the meant one.
Draft of one antireferenzialista and antipsychological conception.
The meant one of a word is given from its value, constituted in the intralinguistica relation between the words, by means of the system of oppositions and differences with the other words.
The linguistici elements are connect between they from one sintagmatica relation to you, that is one association for contiguità, or one paradigmatica relation, that is one association for equivalence.
The problem of this conception is the circolarità defect.
Laddove the linguistiche relations between the terms are known, for this will not have generated some meant.
With semantic the cognitive one it is reached the semantic one of the understanding, that it studies the production processes and of interpretation of means to you.
The truth judgment follows the understanding.
A esplicativo model must psychologically be reasonable.
The language comes considered one cognitive, interdependent activity with the others.
Moreover reference to the experience of the world mediated from the reference culture is made.
For being able to form their enciclopediche acquaintances the individuals make resorted to the perception, to the processes of inference, the construction of script and the reasoning.
As it supports Anolli in “Psycology of the semantic communication” a unified one can explain the process of significazione in its globality.
We must consider three dimensions: the referenziale, the inferenziale, differentiates it them.
| The referenziale dimension emphasizes the
necessity to place a relationship between meant and the truth. It is
the problem of the reference meant like dismissal and
anchorage to the real one. Without such dismissal and anchorage
you would fall in a total soggettivismo and
relativismo. The inferenziale dimension places in evidence the cognitive organization of means to you. This cognitive organization implies that it means have of you respect to you to you in the concepts, understandings like costrutti mental in a position to representing, categorizzare and to define the objects and the events of the truth. Concepts and mean to you constitute two levels distinguished, even if interdependent. The dimension differentiates emphasizes them that the comunicativo system of the language, to the par of whichever other system of communication, contributes to construct the meant one of a word, since the semantic structures of a phrase or a vincolano text the mental rappresentazioni that accompany its enunciation. (Anolli, 2002, pp. 154-155) |
In order to explain the complexity of the meant one reference or to the semantic one or the semantic one of the prototype is made at times.
In semantic at times the meant one of a word it is decomposable making resorted to two conditions:
- the meant one is decomposable in semantic features considers you like necessary and sufficient conditions (CNS) for its formation;
- the number
of the semantic features constitutes a limited
inventory.
(Anolli, 2002, p. 166)
The necessary property constitute the identity of the meant one, while the accidental property are only contingent.
The meant one of a word is univoco.
The problem of the model is that it does not concur the middle positions and moreover that, distinguishing itself between directional and enciclopedica acquaintance, is not considered that both are acquaintances of the world mediated from the experience characterizes them.
Not from space then to one zone of semantic vaghezza.
In the semantic one of the prototype the process of categorizzazione and that one of classification are considered.
The categorizzazione activity renders the thought and the organization of the world possible.
It consists in segmentare the truth and the experiences in categories.
It is realized second two dimensions:
- vertical, that the connection of the various categories concurs through the inclusion process;
- horizontal, that it concurs to institute of the relations between the members of every category.
Through the analogy and likeness principle, the elements of one could themselves be confronted several category with the same prototype, in order to determine of the categoriale belongings.
It has been noticed later on that the criteria that decide of the belongings to a category are not but the same ones that decides of the rappresentatività.
The validity of the indication cannot then explain of the distintività of the property.
With the extensive theory of the prototype one is passes you to the concept of prototype like costrutto mental: with of salienti abstract property that distinguish one category from an other.
It is distinguished between:
- the essential property: the common property to all the members of one category;
- the typical property: specific property additions, subject to exceptions and cancellabili.
- denotativo, than ago specific, primary, conventional and neutral reference to meant of one the expression;
- connotativo, that it constitutes the meant one added the primary meant one.
- meant literal, that is the generated primary meant one from the linguistica combination of meant of the single words of one phrase;
- meant figured, that is the secondary meant one, given from the employment in symbolic and traslato way of the literal meant one.
Closely it is connected with the action and the scope, orients the means choice and corrected to you in order to catch up the goal.
It is translate in actions communicated to you, that they carry to the interpersonal interactions, on which constructs the net of relations.
4.2 The main methods use you for the analysis
of documents
4.2.1 The analysis of the content
Methods in order to practice the analysis of documents are several.
Variega you approaches often come integrated in the search.
The funzionalista current has used mainly the system of the analysis of the content, method not legacy to the linguistica, that it concurs to analyze the manifest content of the communications with rapidity and in systematic way.
For Berelson (1952) draft of one “technical of search for the objective description, systematic and quantitative of the evident content of the communication” that is the “common land of encounter between issuing, adressee and analyst (Berelson, 1952).
Denis McQuail, in the handbook “the mass communications” supports that:
The content of the media often comes used like a
test of the following elements:
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The procedure in order to carry out the analysis of the witnesses consists in the following steps:
- the corpus is chosen of documents, considered in one temporal fraction,
- one divides to the content in item, following exogenous criteria,
- these elements in categories group themselves, codifying them,
- the collected data (for frequency or ties are dealt quantitatively, as an example).
The oggettività of the procedure is given from the riproducibilità, that is from the fact that, using the same method, will have to be reached to the same ones it turns out to you.
Draft of a method that but has been subject to numerous critics:
- lack of depth of the analysis,
- constitution of banal categories of interpretation,
- soggettività in the attribution of the scores from part of the coders,
- isolation of the data from the context,
- rigorosità of the single thematic analysis of the content.
Denis McQuail emphasizes as “the result of the analysis of the content is a new text, whose meant she can, or must, to differ from the material originates them”.
A shape of reading of the content is produced “that no real reader would carry out in natural circumstances” that is place is given a new one costrutto that it goes anch'esso interpreted (McQuail, 1993, p. 206). For Thompson (1998), the analysis of the witnesses introduces of the problems:
| The witnesses come examine to you in itself and for
himself, without relations neither with she objects to it to you and
the resources of who she has produced them, neither with the ways in
which who she receives them she uses them and she comprises.
Producers and adressees are lost sight, and the analyst or the
critic concentrates themselves on a cultural shape that, rather
artificially, separates from the social conditions of its
production, circulation and reception. (Thompson, 1998, p. 59) |
4.2.2. The semionarrativa
semiotica
For Greimas, in the perspective of the semionarrativa semiotica, three levels in one can be distinguished history:
- the deep, assiologico level, constituted from the values that orient the society;
- the novellistic level, that it organizes the values of base in narrations;
- the level of surface, discorsivo, that one constituted from the signs or details that constitute the originality of one history.
As it emphasizes Eleonora Fiorani in “Grammar of the communication”:
| … the semionarrativa semiotica postulates that the
sense produces for generation and from one fundamental base of
constituent values of the social group. These values come puttinges
in scene for means of novellistic structures, enriching them of
figures and objects of the life every day. Through this distance the
sense comes transformed in one determined
significazione. (Fiorani, 1998, p. 172 - 173) |
The greimasiano semiotico square allows to bring to light the semantic competence and that modale (of the persuasion and manipulation).
Contrappone the values of base of the protagonist of a story to the use values, orchestrates them and limits to you.
4.2.3. The structural
analysis
The structural analysis, used from Roland Barthes, is tied to the semiologia, that it inside studies the system of the signs of the social life.
This type of analysis not quantitative sight to the search of the contained meant one in the message.
From denotation, that it is the first level of sense that all share, is passed to the discovery of the connotation.
The decomposition of the corpus of documents is relative to the thought elements of meant pertinenti.
The text for functions can, as an example, be subdivided.
In the discovery of the hidden ties, of the connotations and myths of the language of the mass culture, Barthes has seen one instrument in order to denounce the ideologies and the hidden rappresentazioni of the society, being ended in order to converge with the critical tradition.
Opposing itself to Barthes, Edgar Morin asks itself if it is legitimate to isolate of the elements of meant from the mediatico text.
That that it critical is the constitution of separated systems of meant independent from the existence conditions that sun can equip them of sense.
4.2.4. The analysis of the speech and its
evolutions
The analysis of the speech is an area of nature study to interdisciplinare.
The objects of study of the disciplines that make head (linguistica, psycology, social psycology, sociology, anthropology, semiotica you) come deal to you in the context of the exchanges communicated to you and the discorsiva production.
Historians and politologi have used the instrument of the analysis of the speech in order to reduce wide corpus of witnesses to a series of enunciate to you soggiacenti articulate to you.
As it emphasizes Marcello Maneri, second this methodology of analysis the sense comes gained from the taken one in consideration of multiple plans.
The text is seen in its entirety, in reference to contestuali elements and Co-testuali.
These types of analysis aimed to pick the specific difficulties of the oral material.
It is concentrated on the lessicologia, stating that the sense of the words is born from their use in the reference context.
It studies the associations and the Marches of identity, as an example.
All that leads to job of a partial, contingent and aimed interpretation.
It is watched to as the individuals elaborate and support one own interpretation of the events.
They have been characterizes the constituent features to you of the speech of the media, characterized from a specific structure novellistic and composed of sottogeneri.
In everyone of they peculiar modalities of construction of the text and peculiar modalities of interaction between the text and the context have been characterized.
In years Eighty the studies are diffuse on the reception, that they have valued the thesis of the public assets and have given account of the wealth of the interpretations to which same document can is subject one.
For Thompson (1998, pp. 58-64), the reception:
- it is an activity and not something of liabilities: the adressees can rielaborare the contents in rather far ways from object to you and from the intentions of who he has produced them;
- it goes placed in precise a socio-historical context;
- it goes considered an activity of ruotine, one of practical the customary ones of the daily life;
- it constitutes an expert function, in the sense that depends on a fan of ability and acquired acquaintances;
- it is a ermeneutico process, of interpretation, through which the individuals they attribute meaning to the products of the media.
The interpretation is, for Gadamer (1985), an active and creative process in the course of which the interpreter applies to the message that tries to comprise one series of assumptions and expectations.
To take control a message means also to make it just, to assimilate it and to incorporate it in the own life.
The messages of the media come transform to you, to beyond the reception context, in a process of continuous narration and reinterpretazione.
For Thompson (1998) “for means of the messages and the supplied contents of meant (between the other things) from the products of the media, we put molding on our identity actively” (Thompson, 1998, p. 64).
Also the tradition of search of the cultural studies (within the critical approach of the School of Birmingham) has supplied important contributions: it is taken care of the penetration of the mediatica culture in popular atmospheres and of as the contained ideology in the mediali witnesses is read from the public.
Hall (1980) has proposed a model of codify-decodes of the mediale speech, in which the mediale text it has been situated between the producers (that they construct meant) and the public (that decodes the meant one based on its social conditions and to its outlines interpreted to you).
Through these studies it has been reached the conclusion that not are interpretations universal shared from all.
The semiologia is evoluta, accepting the idea that the sense of the text is not a closed universe.
It is to the fine putting in prominence the pragmatic dimension of the text, considering the problem of the simmetria between production and reception.
To a sure point more important has been thought to go to articulating the elements of the message rather than conteggiarli.
In the qualitative searches on the reception currency if the public has, and in that way, a contact with the document that is wanted to be examined.
In order to make that it can be resorted to of the surveys that, but, beyond to being expensive, go also prepare to you well so that they turn out meant to you.
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